G-A-Y in the U-S-A: An Historical Look at the Emergence of Homosexuality from 1880 – 1945
 
Introduction

The years between 1880 and 1945 marks the beginning for what would later develop into widespread gay activism in the United States.  It was during this time that negative attitudes towards homosexuality, which had previously been based on religious dogma and moderately shaped by minority ethnic customs, began to take a change.  Some of these attitudinal changes were sparked by the labeling of homosexuality by American doctors in the 1890s, based on terminology that was taken from German doctors.  This classification, in a sense, separated the homosexual from the heterosexual, and therefore created an identity – although still a negative one – for the group.  By developing this identity, however, it empowered homosexuals to begin an emergence from their closets; a coming out, so to speak.

This coming out process would take years of gradual chipping away at the mountain of prejudices built by society.  The tools used by homosexuals were those of literature, song, and clandestine social networks.  Inspired by earlier writers such as Walt Whitman, it was during this era that explicit gay themes began to appear in the works of many gay writers, and later, the development of the gay novel.    In later years, during the late teens and twenties, speakeasies, private parties, and gay bars became more common in larger cities.  And during this same time, somewhat mainstream music began to have gay themes as well.  All of these factors would play a role in the formation of a major gay rights movement that would not take place until more than twenty years later in the 1960s.

Despite religious persecution, negative labeling by medical science, and homophobia, between the years of 1880 and 1945 in the United States there began an emergence of homosexual activism through literature, song, and underground social networks that would continue to grow and lead to major breakthroughs in later years.  Although much of this history remains buried, some of it has been exhumed by contemporary historians through the research of medical writings, personal letters, diaries, police reports, church records, among other documentation, to unveil a past replete with homosexuality and homo-social activities.  The current report will investigate some of these findings and attempt to tie together a brief history of the surfacing of homosexuality during this era and the struggles that homosexuals faced against negative societal attitudes.

Attitudes towards homosexuality:

Societal attitudes towards homosexuals in the U.S. have been shaped by several factors including customary tradition from various ethnic groups, religious views, medical science, and homophobia.  Before colonization by Europeans, the Americas were inhabited by Amerindians whereas in many tribes, homosexuality was a normal part of life.  The colonization of some areas by the French and Spanish, the importation of blacks and the immigration of Asians among other groups with somewhat lenient views towards homosexuality, also played a role in shaping societal response to homosexual behavior. However, the puritanical views held by the majority – that is, colonists brought over from England – would prove to be the dominant force which did not accept homosexuality as natural and so it was this view that would prevail throughout early history in the U.S.   Even after some of the Victorian ideas of the late 1800s faded, medical science stepped in just in time to determine that homosexuality was deviant behavior and should be corrected.    Finally, during World War II, some of the previously held attitudes towards homosexuals began to change, and this marks the beginning of what can be called gay rights activism in the U.S.  In order to understand some of these attitudes, one must consider their origins.

Native American tradition

When the Europeans arrived in the New World they were astonished to find that there were many aboriginal tribes throughout the Americas in which there existed various forms of homosexuality and where sexual diversity was accepted as a normal part of life. 

One of the most popular examples of homosexuality in the Native American tradition was that of the berdache; a term used to describe a boy or young man who was kept by an older man as his male courtesan.  The berdache was the passive partner of an older, active male.  These natives supposed that a person was the way he was because the spirits had made him that way, and that a person’s basic character was more important than the biological gender of that individual in determining his social identity.  In fact, in many tribes the berdache was seen as especially gifted by the spirits because they combined masculine spirits with feminine.  They were often seen as sacred persons, as healers, as shamans, as seers, and as prophets.  In some tribes, the berdache would marry another male, but not another berdache. Although most of these traditions were eradicated by the Christian teachings of the European colonists, in some of the Native American traditions, there still remains today an acceptance of homosexuality.

Other Cultural influences

During the early years of colonization, various groups would play a role in determining the overall attitudes of society concerning homosexuality.  Some of these influences included the French, Spanish, Blacks, and Asians, among other groups.  Although their influence would be masked by the prominent attitudes held by the British colonists, in some parts of the country, these influences would have a lasting effect on society.

All of the aforementioned groups tended to have more lenient attitudes towards homosexuality, and therefore, in the areas that they were concentrated, would bring some of this tradition with them.  For example, the French, who briefly colonized the Mississippi River Valley, left a lasting imprint with a more tolerant attitude towards homosexuality in New Orleans. In Florida, Texas, California and the South West, there were large numbers of Spanish colonies which had a lasting influence with the tradition of a macho masculinity and a Mediterranean style of homosexuality; that is, one in which an older dominant male would have sex with a younger male.  Black people during this era had their own distinct attitudes towards homosexuality which will be further considered in a social context, and the Asian immigrants brought with them more relaxed attitudes.  Since their populations were smaller, the attitudes held by these groups would not be able to compete with the more common Puritan attitudes that the English settlers brought with them. 

The Protestant tradition

By far, the most dominant views concerning homosexuality in the early years of the United States were those held by the settlers that came from England.  With them, besides the standard cargo, they brought along the attitude that sexual activity between those of the same gender, as well as any non-procreative sex was against nature.  It is in the early years of colonization that one finds evidence of harsh forms of punishment for such crimes, and sometimes even the death penalty.  These treatments would remain intact for years before they would be eventually replaced by lesser penalties.

Since the main economy throughout the British colonies from Maine to Georgia was agriculture, children were very important for working on the farms.  It was for this reason that procreative sex and family arrangements that would lead to such were stressed.  According to the Old and New Testaments, any form of non-procreative sex was sinful; masturbation and sex with prostitutes were met with almost equal condemnation as male-to-male sexual activity.  In many jurisdictions, the sodomy laws were written based entirely on the language of the bible.

In England and in the New World harsh punishments were used to deter non-procreative sex, or sodomy as termed during the early years.  Many accounts of cruel penalties to homosexual men have been documented in the works of Jonathan Katz, gay historian.  In his writings, he has demonstrated some of the early laws that use language that clearly portray a loathing towards sodomites.  One example of this is the Virginia Sodomy Law, originally written in 1610, whereas:

No man shall commit the horrible, detestable sins of Sodomie upon pain of death; & he or she that can be lawfully convict[ed] of Adultery shall be punished with death.  No man shall ravish or force any woman, maid or Indian, or other, upon pain of death…

In 1624, this law was used in the execution of Richard Cornish, a ship’s captain, for allegedly forcing his indentured servant, William Cowse, to have sex with him.   It would not be until years later when Thomas Jefferson would ask that the penalty for sodomy be reduced to castration instead of death.

Defining homosexuality

In the latter part of the 1800s, a change takes place that would dramatically alter previously held ideas concerning homosexuality.  Prior to this time, there was no concept of a “homosexual” or of sexual orientation per se; homosexuality was believed to be sinful activity that anyone might practice.   Beginning in the 1860s however, homosexuality obtains a label by a German doctor and in later years, this new terminology would be brought to the United States.   It would not be until the 1890s that American doctors would begin using the term homosexual, and even later before the idea of a polar opposite orientation of the heterosexual.  These ideas would remain almost strictly within the medical community for years before becoming part of common knowledge.

In the mid-part of the 1800s, gay activism in Europe would play a part in changes that would take place in the U.S. many years later.  In 1869 a Hungarian Dr. Benkert (under the pseudonym of K.M. Kertbeny) wrote an open letter asking German legislators to take a more rational view of homosexuality (a term that he coined in that same year) and argued that the state had “…no business sticking its nose into people’s bedrooms.”  He continued in his letter by stating that a society that banned homosexual love would be awkward for historians since many leading historical figures had been gay.  He went on to name many of these famous figures – especially those of the Christian era – asking if imprisonment (the existing form of punishment in Europe) would be appropriate for them.   Another major influence from Germany was that of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, who in the 1860s held the largest body of homosexual literature.  It was during this time that he coined the term “uranian” to refer to homosexuals.  This term was used to signify a “third sex”; one with a woman’s mind in a man’s body.   The term “uranian” would also make its way to the U.S., but not have nearly the same impact as “homosexual”, a term that is still widely used today.

The first use of the term “homosexual” in the United States would not appear until May of 1892.  In a medical journal article, the American Dr. Kiernan defined what he called the “pure homosexual” as someone whose “general mental state is that of the opposite sex.”  In this same article, he defined the heterosexual as someone with a mental condition in which “traces of the normal (italics added) sexual appetite are discoverable”; what one now would consider bisexual. Later, in 1894, Havelock Ellis published an article entitled The Study of Sexual Inversion.  In this study, he discussed Krafft-Ebing’s idea of “psychosexual hermaphroditism”, or bisexuality in which the homosexual instinct was dominant, but that there was evidence of “normal heterosexual instinct.”  He did not make mention of a parallel, exclusively “heterosexual” male; an idea that would appear in later writings.  Finally, in March 1895, the translation of a French medical article published by Raffalovich, makes a clear distinction between the homosexual and the heterosexual as we know today.

This distinction between the homosexual and the heterosexual gave homosexuals an identity; it aided in the creation of a subculture that would become more and more prominent in the years that followed.  Once esoteric, homosexuality would become increasingly known in the public forum.  For many homosexuals, a sense of pride would develop that would push them to speak out and resist.  Some of this resistance will now be examined.

Resistance and Emergence:

After many years of tolerance, homosexuals in America began to resist the injustices presented them in the mid and latter part of the 1800s.  Some of the earliest forms of resistance to society’s unfairness included literature, song, and the forming of underground networks.  Although often obscured, many of the writings of the period were rather bold in describing homosexual love and same-sex attraction.  The earliest of which was some of the poetry published by Walt Whitman in 1855.  Inspired by Whitman, later in the century many gay writers began using gay themes in their works; sometimes implicit, but oftentimes explicit.  In later years, especially during what is known as the Harlem Renaissance, homosexuality makes an appearance in many popular songs of the period.  And throughout this time, evidence of homo-social activities can be demonstrated.  It was these forms of resistance that allowed for homosexuality, and the identity of the homosexual to strengthen.

Gay Literature

Literature by and about homosexuality began to appear in the United States before and during the years of 1880 and 1945.  One of the earliest and most acclaimed American writers that advocated homosexual love was Walt Whitman(1819 – 1892), whose work was actually published in 1855; however, his work would prove to be very influential in the States and abroad and is still taught in American schools today.  In his 1855 publication of Leaves of Grass, he was especially candid in some of the portrayal of homosexual love. His Calamus section of Leaves of Grass is replete with descriptive prose of physical male-to-male contact.  For example, in the poem, When I Heard at the Close of the Day, he writes:

…for the one I love most lay sleeping by me under the same cover in the cool night,  in the stillness in the autumn moonbeams his face was inclined toward me, and his arm lay lightly around my breast – and that night I was happy.

In another poem entitle Glimpse, from the same section, Whitman describes what may possibly be an early gay bar scene.  As he describes:

…of a crowd of workmen and drivers in a bar-room around the stove late of a winter night…
…of a youth who loves me and whom I love, silently approaching and seating himself near, that he may hold me by the hand…
… there we two, content, happy in being together, speaking little, perhaps not a word.

Whitman continues with other similar portrayals of same-sex love and physical contact between males in other such poems as, We Two Boys Together Clinging and To a Western Boy.  His work was originally received with general indifference and sometimes hostility, but he has become one of the most famous and influential poets in U.S. history.   Other poets followed Whitman’s example in writing of same-sex love between men.  Some of these included: Fitz-Green Halleck, George Santayana, and Bayard.  They did so however, much more cautiously after the arrest of Oscar Wilde in England made international news.

The American gay novel first appeared in the early 1900s, where one sees works by Chester Allan Dale (under the pseudonym of Alfred J. Cohen) and E.I. Prime-Stevenson (writing as Xavier Mayne).  The writings of Charles Warren Stoddard also appeared around this time.  Although censorship limited the theatrical productions of homosexually based plays, a few gay characters did make the stage; however they were “…enveloped in a haze of ambiguity, if not outright homophobia.”  

Horatio Alger’s books created “The American Dream”, where the young heroes of his stories were often aided by older male patrons.  Alger’s probably based his stories on his own life.   He had been charged earlier in the century with “unnatural crimes with boys” by the Unitarian Church in Brewster, Massachusetts where he was a minister.  After his charge, he quickly left town in 1866 and went to New York where he began writing to glorify youth and the American Dream; “…the twin ideas his accusers supposed he was bent on corrupting.”  

Another writer in this era was Earl Lind (pseudonyms of Ralph Werther and Jennie June).  Among other works, Lind produced a two volume autobiography, the first of which was entitled Autobiography of an Androgyne in 1918, followed by The Female Impersonator in 1922.  When published, it was said to be the most candid homosexual memoirs ever produced in America.  And it was Lind that possibly used the term “gay” to signify homosexuals.

It was the literature during this era that would bring light to an otherwise dark and unknown world to the general public.  From the works of Whitman to Faulkner, from the explicit to the implicit, society was beginning to discover lives and feelings of homosexuals that had been otherwise kept secret.  And with this awareness, many previously held prejudices would be lost which would lead to even further acceptance by society.

Gay Social Life

In larger cities, the frontier, and ships, there were many opportunities for gays to meet and socialize, however, some of the best examples of homo-social activities were during the Harlem Renaissance.  It was during this time that one sees many private parties, speakeasies, and costume balls, many of which catered to homosexuals and their admirers.   During this same time, one begins to see the use of homosexual themes in the music of the day.  These social activities will now be further discussed.

The Harlem Renaissance, from approximately 1920 to 1935, according to Eric Garber, played a major role in the development of a gay American subculture.  In his essay, he discusses speakeasies, private parties, and drag balls.  He also describes attitudes held by blacks towards homosexuals and gives many examples of literature and music that makes references to homosexuality.

In his essay, Garber writes about how black lesbians and gay men would meet on street corners, cabarets, and rent parties (an elaborate party of which admission was charged in order to pay the rent), and worship in church together on Sundays.  They created their own language, a social structure, and a network of institutions.  While some of these figures were open about their sexuality, others remained more discreet.  Their parties attracted white homosexuals as well as black from all over the world.

Garber continues by describing how, during WWI, there was an increase in industrial production and a decrease in immigration, both of which led to the need for more assistance from black southerners.  This caused a huge migration of black southerners to the north where black communities were formed in Chicago, Detroit and Buffalo.  However, Harlem was by far the largest and “…most spectacular” Garber says.  It was during this time that we begin to see the New Negro movement, from which developed new styles of music, art, and literature.  Blues music, which developed from folk music that developed in rural southern black communities after the Civil War, reflected the social and sexual attitudes of Harlem’s new population.  There are several examples where homosexuality is part of this music.  In a traditional tune recorded by many male blues singer and called “Sissy Man Blues”, the singer says, “If you can’t bring me a woman, bring me a sissy man”.  Some of the lyrics are critical of homosexuality, but none seem to shun or demonstrate hate.  This culture accepted homosexuality as a natural part of life.

Another part of this Harlem culture was called a “buffet flat”.  These were after hours events usually held in someone’s apartment.  These flats began to emerge in the late 1800s to accommodate black travelers that were refused service in white-owned hotels.  In the 1920s, these flats had developed a reputation of housing such illegal activities as gambling, drinking, and prostitution.  Homosexuality here was certainly tolerated and often times encouraged.  Garber writes about several accounts of different types of shows that might take place an such an event, including one “faggot” that people used to pay good money just to watch him make love to another man.

Garber continues by discussing the development of the more public speakeasies; illegal clubs that served alcohol during prohibition.  In some of these clubs, the homosexual had to remain clandestine and blend in with the heterosexuals.  However, there were other such clubs that catered especially to the “pansy” trade.  The artist Bruce Nugent, describing one such club, said that it catered to “rough queers” and continued to say that they “…fought better than truck drivers and swished better than Mae West.”   With the end of prohibition, speakeasies became less popular and many closed there doors.  Although more public, a safer place for homosexual entertainment were those Harlem costume balls.  They attracted thousands of folks from as far away as Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Atlantic City.  Here, one could dress as one liked and dance with whomever they wanted.

The social activities of the Harlem Renaissance would play a major role in not only the strengthening of the social networks of homosexuals, but also in the attitudes held by the general population towards homosexuality.  Through the intermingling of gays with heterosexuals, some of the previously held beliefs and prejudices would be replaced with more understanding and accepting attitudes towards homosexuality.  And the social networks that were created during this time would grow and become even more popular among what was developing into a homosexual community.

Conclusion:

As demonstrated, against religious persecution, negative labeling by medical science, and homophobia, homosexuals, between the years of 1880 and 1945, began to emerge in the United States with the use of the writings, song, and clandestine social networks.  Societal attitudes towards homosexuality had many influences – typically negative – that would begin to slowly change during this era from one of almost complete intolerance to a somewhat more relaxed attitude towards the end of World War II.  The more lenient attitudes held by many of the minority ethnic groups certainly played a role in the modification of the stricter opinions of the majority.  The writings of such authors as Walt Whitman, followed by many others, the songs of some of the blues singers of the Harlem Renaissance, and the social networks created during this time would play a part in altering the previously held attitudes. This emergence and these changes in societal attitudes would prove to be a stepping stone for further breakthroughs for gay rights in the latter part of the 20th Century.

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